Louellens Urinary Output Continues to Diminish

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Chronic kidney disease is a slowly progressive (months to years) decline in the kidneys' ability to filter metabolic waste products from the blood.

• Major causes are diabetes and high blood pressure.

• Blood becomes more acidic, anemia develops, nerves are damaged, bone tissue deteriorates, and risk of atherosclerosis increases.

• Symptoms can include urinating at night, fatigue, nausea, itching, muscle twitching and cramps, loss of appetite, confusion, difficulty breathing, and body swelling (most commonly the legs).

• Diagnosis is by blood and urine tests.

• Treatment aims to restrict fluids, sodium, and potassium in the diet; use drugs to correct other conditions (such as diabetes, high blood pressure, anemia, and electrolyte imbalances); and, when necessary, use dialysis or kidney transplantation.

Both of these conditions directly damage the kidneys' small blood vessels.

Other causes of chronic kidney disease include urinary tract blockage Urinary Tract Obstruction Urinary tract obstruction is a blockage that inhibits the flow of urine through its normal path (the urinary tract), including the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. Blockage can be complete... read more (obstruction), certain kidney abnormalities (such as polycystic kidney disease Polycystic Kidney Disease (PKD) Polycystic kidney disease is a hereditary disorder in which many fluid-filled sacs (cysts) form in both kidneys. The kidneys grow larger but have less functioning tissue. Polycystic kidney disease... read more and glomerulonephritis Glomerulonephritis Glomerulonephritis is a disorder of glomeruli (clusters of microscopic blood vessels in the kidneys with small pores through which blood is filtered). It is characterized by body tissue swelling... read more ), and autoimmune disorders (such as systemic lupus erythematosus [lupus] Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) Systemic lupus erythematosus is a chronic autoimmune inflammatory connective tissue disorder that can involve joints, kidneys, skin, mucous membranes, and blood vessel walls. Problems in the... read more ) in which antibodies damage the tiny blood vessels (glomeruli) and the tiny tubes (tubules) of the kidneys.

Chronic kidney disease causes many problems throughout the body:

• When loss of kidney function is mild or moderately severe, the kidneys cannot absorb water from the urine to reduce the volume of urine and concentrate it.

• High levels of metabolic waste products in the blood can damage nerve cells in the brain, trunk, arms, and legs. Uric acid levels may increase, sometimes causing gout.

• Diseased kidneys produce hormones that increase blood pressure. In addition, diseased kidneys cannot excrete excess salt and water. Salt and water retention can contribute to high blood pressure and heart failure.

• The formation and maintenance of bone tissue may be impaired (renal osteodystrophy) if certain conditions that accompany chronic kidney disease are present for a long time. These conditions include a high level of parathyroid hormone, a low concentration of calcitriol (the active form of vitamin D) in the blood, impaired absorption of calcium, and a high concentration of phosphate in the blood. Renal osteodystrophy may lead to bone pain and an increased risk of fractures.

Symptoms usually develop very slowly. As kidney failure progresses and metabolic waste products build up in the blood, symptoms progress.

Mild to moderate loss of kidney function may cause only mild symptoms, such as the need to urinate several times during the night (nocturia). Nocturia occurs because the kidneys cannot absorb water from the urine to reduce the volume and concentrate it as normally occurs during the night.

As kidney function worsens and more metabolic waste products build up in the blood, people may feel fatigued and generally weak and may become less mentally alert. Some have a loss of appetite and shortness of breath. Anemia also contributes to fatigue and generalized weakness.

Severe loss of kidney function causes metabolic wastes to build up to higher levels in the blood. Damage to muscles and nerves can cause muscle twitches, muscle weakness, cramps, and pain. People may also feel a pins-and-needles sensation in the arms and legs and may lose sensation in certain areas of the body. They may develop restless legs syndrome. Encephalopathy, a condition in which the brain malfunctions, may ensue and lead to confusion, lethargy, and seizures.

Heart failure may cause shortness of breath. Body swelling may develop, particularly in the legs. Pericarditis may cause chest pain and low blood pressure. People who have advanced chronic kidney disease commonly develop gastrointestinal ulcers and bleeding. The skin may turn yellow-brown, and occasionally, the concentration of urea is so high that it crystallizes from sweat, forming a white powder on the skin. Some people with chronic kidney disease itch all over their body. Their breath may also be foul.

• Blood and urine tests

• Ultrasonography

• Sometimes biopsy

Blood and urine tests are essential. They confirm the decline in kidney function.

When loss of kidney function reaches a certain level in chronic kidney disease, the levels of chemicals in the blood typically become abnormal.

• Urea and creatinine, metabolic waste products that are normally filtered out by the kidneys, are increased.

• Blood becomes moderately acidic.

• Potassium in the blood is often normal or only slightly increased but can become dangerously high.

• Calcium and calcitriol in the blood decrease.

• Phosphate and parathyroid hormone levels increase.

• Hemoglobin is usually lower (which means the person has some degree of anemia).

Potassium can become dangerously high when kidney failure reaches an advanced stage or if people ingest large amounts of potassium or take a drug that prevents the kidneys from excreting the potassium.

Analysis of the urine may detect many abnormalities, including protein and abnormal cells.

Ultrasonography is often done to rule out obstruction and check the size of the kidneys. Small, scarred kidneys often indicate that loss of kidney function is chronic. Determining a precise cause becomes increasingly difficult as chronic kidney disease reaches an advanced stage.

Removing a sample of tissue from a kidney for examination (kidney biopsy) may be the most accurate test, but it is not recommended if results of an ultrasound examination show that the kidneys are small and scarred.

If chronic kidney disease is caused by a disorder that can be corrected (for example, urinary tract blockage) and if that disorder has not been present for too long, then kidney function may improve when the causative disorder is successfully treated. Otherwise, kidney function tends to worsen over time. The rate of decline in kidney function depends somewhat on the underlying disorder causing chronic kidney disease and on how well the disorder is controlled. For example, diabetes and high blood pressure, particularly if poorly controlled, cause kidney function to decline more rapidly. Chronic kidney disease is fatal if not treated.

• Treatment of conditions that worsen kidney function

• Dietary measures and drugs

The goal of treatment is to slow the decline of kidney function.

Conditions that can cause or worsen chronic kidney disease and adversely affect overall health should be promptly addressed, such as

• Infections

• Use of certain drugs

Controlling the level of sugar (glucose) in the blood as well as high blood pressure in people with diabetes substantially slows deterioration in kidney function. Drugs called angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors and angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs), which help lower blood pressure, may decrease the rate of decline in kidney function in some people with chronic kidney disease. Drugs called sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitors can also slow deterioration in kidney function, but they should be avoided in people with type 1 diabetes mellitus.

Doctors avoid prescribing drugs that are excreted by the kidneys, or they prescribe lower doses of such drugs. Many other drugs may need to be avoided. For example, ACE inhibitors, ARBs, and certain diuretics (such as spironolactone, amiloride, and triamterene) may need to be stopped in people with severe chronic kidney disease and high potassium levels because these drugs can increase potassium levels.

Obstructions in the urinary tract are removed or relieved. Bacterial infections are treated with antibiotics.

Dietary measures should be taken and drugs can be prescribed to slow the progression of chronic kidney disease.

The decline in kidney function can be slowed slightly by restricting the amount of protein consumed daily. People need to consume sufficient carbohydrates to offset the reduction in protein. If dietary protein is significantly restricted, it is wise to have the supervision of a dietitian to be sure adequate amounts of amino acids are taken in.

The triglyceride and cholesterol levels in the blood may be controlled somewhat by limiting fat in the diet. Drugs such as statins, ezetimibe, or both may be required to lower the levels of triglycerides and cholesterol.

Fluid intake may need to be restricted to prevent the sodium concentration in the blood from becoming too low. Foods that are extremely high in potassium, such as salt substitutes, must be avoided, and foods that are somewhat high in potassium, such as dates, figs, and many other fruits, should not be consumed in excess. (See the National Kidney Foundation's publication Potassium and Your CKD Diet for more information.)

The elevated phosphorus level in the blood can cause deposits of calcium and phosphorus to form in tissues, including the blood vessels. Restricting the intake of foods that are high in phosphorus, such as dairy products, liver, legumes, nuts, and most soft drinks, lowers the phosphate concentration in the blood. Drugs that bind phosphate, such as calcium carbonate, calcium acetate, sevelamer, lanthanum, and ferric citrate, taken by mouth, may also lower the phosphorus level in the blood. Calcium citrate should be avoided. Calcium citrate is found in many calcium supplements and is in many products as a food additive (sometimes called E333). Vitamin D and similar drugs are often taken by mouth to reduce high levels of parathyroid hormone.

The anemia caused by chronic kidney disease is treated with

• Drugs such as erythropoietin or darbepoietin

• Blood transfusions

Blood transfusions are given only if the anemia is severe, is causing symptoms, and does not respond to erythropoietin or darbepoietin.

High blood pressure is treated with antihypertensive drugs to prevent further impairment of heart and kidney function.

Diuretics may also relieve symptoms of heart failure, even when kidney function is poor, but dialysis may be needed to remove the excess body water in severe chronic kidney disease.

The following are some English-language resources that may be useful. Please note that THE MANUAL is not responsible for the content of these resources.

• National Kidney Foundation (NKF): NKF provides information about kidney disease and kidney transplant, needs-based financial assistance to help manage medical expenses, webinars for medical professionals, and opportunities for advocacy.

Generic Name	Select Brand Names
parathyroid hormone	NATPARA
spironolactone	ALDACTONE
amiloride	MIDAMOR
triamterene	DYRENIUM
sodium bicarbonate	No US brand name
ezetimibe	ZETIA
sodium polystyrene sulfonate	KALEXATE
patiromer	VELTASSA
calcium acetate	PHOSLYRA
sevelamer	RENAGEL
lanthanum	FOSRENOL
desmopressin	DDAVP, STIMATE

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